Mother & Destroyer

The Sea is the mother of all life on Earth, which first evolved in her realm about 3.6 billion years ago.  It would not be until 450 million years ago that some species became terrestrial but a fabulous diversity of life still inhabits Mother Sea, much of which has yet to be discovered by humans.

Nourishing and sculpting terrestrial ecosystems with her weather systems, she also destroys habitats and human developments with coastal hurricanes, severe inland storms and flooding rains.  Indeed, as our climate warms, these destructive events will intensify.

Furthermore, as her component oceans open and close, earthquakes, tsunamis and volcanism alter terrestrial landscapes and destroy regional life; the recent earthquakes in Venezuela demonstrate a risk that stretches across the globe.  The Sea, an essential component of Life on Earth is both generous and destructive; we could not live without her but often succumb to her power.  

Venezuela's Earthquakes

A magnitude 7.2 foreshock and a magnitude 7.5 earthquake struck northern Venezuela yesterday; many aftershocks have followed.  At least 164 persons were killed and close to 1000 were injured; unfortunately, these early counts are almost certain to rise.

A complex band of faults between the Caribbean Plate and the South American Plate runs across northern Venezuela.  As the Atlantic Ocean continues to open, a process that began during the Jurassic Period, about 150 million years ago, the North and South America Plates have been moving westward.  Eventually, the much smaller Caribbean Plate became wedged between them, setting the stage for earthquakes when pressure between the plates is released.  These major events trigger pressure release in numerous side faults, producing aftershocks throughout the region.

The primary magnitude 7.5 quake was the second strongest ever recorded in Venezuela, weaker only than a magnitude 7.7 earthquake in 1900.  Hopefully, it will retain that title for many years to come; then again, a more powerful quake could occur tomorrow as the geologic map of Planet Earth continues to evolve.

The Central American Gyre

From May to June and from September to November, a large, relatively weak zone of low pressure settles over Central America, coinciding with the rainy seasons in that region.  Of little consequence itself, this gyre may interact with tropical waves arriving from the Caribbean or from the South Pacific.

This interaction may produce tropical depressions which, under the right conditions, may develop into tropical storms.  Of course, if wind shear does not intervene, these storms may then become hurricanes, either in the Gulf of Mexico or along the west coast of Central America.

This meteorological sequence is often responsible for Gulf of Mexico tropical storms and hurricanes that develop early and late in the Atlantic Hurricane Season (June to November).  Typically, a tropical depression develops in the southwest Gulf of Mexico and moves northward; if high pressure has settled over the Gulf, suppressing wind shear, the depression becomes a tropical storm or hurricane as it moves across the warm Gulf waters.  According to current forecasts, such a development may occur later this week.  

The Southeastern Drought

Due to a persistent atmospheric ridge over the Southeastern U.S., storm systems arriving from the Pacific have been shunted across the Upper Midwest, Great Lakes and Northeastern States.  As a result, severe drought has developed within that ridge; indeed, much of Georgia and Florida are in extreme drought.

A stable jet stream arc, from the Southern Plains to the Ohio River Valley and across the Mid-Atlantic region has produced the ridge.  Within its dome, air is sinking and heating up, impairing cloud formation, negating precipitation and drying out the soil.  As one might expect, the incidence of wildfires has increased significantly.

Fortunately, a potent storm system is forecast to arrive within a week, displacing the ridge and bringing much needed rain to the Southeastern States.  An early tropical storm or two would be nice as well but an El Niño pattern in the Pacific is expected to dampen this year's Atlantic Hurricane Season; on the other hand, El Niños tend to produce more precipitation across the Southern U.S. 

The Kona Low

Severe flooding across Oahu, Hawaii, is the product of an unusually potent and persistent Kona Low.  The latter is a center of low pressure that typically develops northwest of the Hawaiian Islands during the winter months, sweeping tropical moisture across that archipelago from the southwest.

Held in place by an atmospheric trough (a dip in the jet stream), this "cutoff low"generally persists for a few weeks, producing a typical rainy season.  This year, the Kona Low developed relatively late in the winter but its strength and persistence has led to the torrential precipitation and record flooding.

Of interest, this atmospheric trough over the Pacific is tied to the persistent atmospheric ridge over the Desert Southwest, which has fueled the severe heat that is currently spreading eastward across the U.S.  Climatologists believe that both extremes demonstrate the effects of our warming climate.

Northeast Blizzard

The storm system that raked the Midwest with tornadoes and dropped heavy snow across the Great Lakes region will move off the Atlantic Coast today, creating a classic Nor'Easter as its counterclockwise winds pull in copious moisture from the ocean.  Up to two feet of snow is expected from New Jersey to Boston and the high winds will produce blizzard conditions.

February is the peak month for Nor'Easters as gyrations in the jet stream trigger the fickle and rapidly changing weather of early spring.  The exact track of the storm determines the impact on coastal cities and the current forecast indicates that this one may be devastating, perhaps shutting down travel throughout the region.

Then again, all the snow and misery will fuel the conviction of the uninformed (and politically motivated) that global warming is a hoax, ignoring the fact that powerful storms and an energized jet stream are fueled by heat.  

The Dolomites

Those watching the Winter Olympics from Italy, may have heard that the skiing events are being held in The Dolomites.  This range, in northeast Italy, lies within the Southern Limestone Region of the Alps.

Most of the land that is now Italy became part of Northern Africa when the Tethys Sea opened, some 200 million years ago, separating Europe and Africa.  When that Sea closed, beginning 50 million years ago, Italy was Africa's leading point as it drifted northward and rammed into Europe, lifting the Alps and associated ranges in the process; marine sediments from the Tethys thus form the southern edge of the Alps.  In areas where the sediments were rich in magnesium, the limestone took the form of dolomite (calcium-magnesium-carbonate).

Dolomite is found in many limestone formations across the globe.  Of interest to those of us in Missouri, it is widespread in the Ordovician limestone of the Ozarks.

See also: Italy and Africa and Oil and the Tethys Sea

Pacific Northwest Flooding

A series of Pacific storms have lined up from Hawaii to British Columbia.  The first of these produced widespread flooding across western Washington over the past few days, having directed its "atmospheric river" at that State before coming ashore in Canada.

Following a reprieve today, the second storm will arrive off the Pacific Northwest coast by tomorrow and its atmospheric river is expected to pummel the area once again.  Since its air will be warmer than that of the first storm, it will likely trigger snowmelt across lower elevations of the Cascades, augmenting the severity of the deluge.  Unfortunately, a third storm is currently swirling near Hawaii and, depending on the angle of its attack, may bring flooding rains to western Washington as well.

Guided by the jet stream, such storms are responsible for the relatively mild, moist climate of the Pacific Northwest.  But when the weather pattern fails to shift, recurrent storms direct their cargo of moisture across the same coastal region, producing destructive floods and landslides. 

Flashback Post LXX

Today's magnitude 7.0 earthquake along the coast of southeast Alaska (Northwest of Juneau) reflects the complex geology of that State, a subject discussed back in August of 2012.

See: Alaska's Collage of Terranes 

Southwest Deluge

Over the past week, a deep atmospheric trough off the West Coast directed heavy rain and high winds across Northern California, Oregon and Washington.  Then, its southern portion split away and strengthened off the coast of Southern California; this "cut-off low" is now sweeping torrential rain across San Diego, Los Angeles and the adjacent mountains.

Prolonged, heavy rain will be especially problematic in the burn scar areas, likely producing mudslides and landslides.  On the positive side, the Southern Sierra Nevada may receive up to three feet of snow, a welcome, early addition to the vital winter snow pack.

After pummeling Southern California, the storm is expected to move across western Arizona and southern Nevada before dumping significant snow in the mountains of Utah and Colorado.  Unfortunately, a second Pacific storm system may form in its wake, augmenting the potential for widespread flooding across the arid landscapes of the Desert Southwest.

Hurricane Melissa threatens Jamaica

Currently a category 5 storm, with winds of 160 mph, Hurricane Melissa is expected to turn northward later this morning and cross the island of Jamaica overnight.  Heavy rain (up to three feet), storm surge, strong winds, flash floods and mud slides are forecast to devastate the country.

Though it has been a relatively quiet Atlantic Hurricane Season, it only takes one intense storm to remind us that climate change will spawn larger and more destructive hurricanes.  After causing widespread misery in Jamaica, Melissa is forecast to head off to the NNE, crossing eastern Cuba and then the Turks & Caicos Islands.

The recovery in Jamaica will surely be prolonged and its citizens will depend on assistance from other countries throughout the Caribbean and across the globe.  In this era of political isolationism, that may be a challenge.  International aid organizations will likely take the lead and your financial support for their work is strongly encouraged.   

A Losing Battle in NC

The Outer Banks of North Carolina were created by the sea and are now being recalled.  While the State has escaped any direct hurricane landfalls this year (at least to date), several potent storms have passed offshore and another is due this coming weekend.

Waves and wind produced by these storms have been eroding the beaches and flooding coastal homes.  Man-made dunes, created to protect those properties have been pulled out to sea or shoved into the houses.  At times, water and sand have closed the main highway.

Climate change will significantly increase these erosive forces and, over the next few decades, one suspects that the Outer Banks may disappear altogether.  Rising sea levels and stronger storms will reclaim this scenic landscape.

Hurricane Coverage

As Hurricane Erin churns toward North America, the Weather Channel is providing non-stop coverage.  It is, after all, the first Atlantic hurricane of 2025 and there is nothing more marketable in their area of expertise.

In my opinion, the Weather Channel does a great job when it comes to educating the public about all forms of severe weather, including safety precautions, preparations and the forecast itself.  As one who has long been interested in the science of weather, I appreciate their knowledge and enthusiasm.

On the other hand, hurricanes seem to bring out their need to deliver updates every 15 minutes and, should the storm threaten coastal communities, to report from the scene, standing in the wind and rain while insisting that the public evacuate for their own safety.  A mixed message at best.

See:  Hurricane Stuntmen and Cantore Season 

Flashback Post LXIX

Yesterday's Magnitude 8.8 earthquake, off the coast of eastern Russia's Kamchatka Peninsula, was the 6th most powerful quake ever recorded.  Geologically speaking, it occurred along a subduction zone, triggering a tsunami warning across the Pacific Ocean.  A post from April of 2009 explained this phenomenon.

See: Tsunamis and Subduction Zones 

On the Scottish Coast

Once again, the PGA Tour has taken viewers to an interesting geographic area.  This week, it is the Genesis Scottish Open, on the southern coast of the Firth of Forth, east of Edinburgh.

Today's third round is being played under sunny skies and CBS peppers its coverage with views of the rocky coastline, the Firth of Forth and the Highlands beyond.  While I certainly enjoy watching the match itself, the chance to encounter new and scenic geography is a special feature of the Tour.

My wife and I were fortunate to visit Scotland in 2019 and explored most of the country, including Edinburgh.  But we did not get out to the peninsula where this week's match is being held and I appreciate the geographic perspective.  More than any other televised sport, golf takes us to landscapes across the globe. 

Tropical Storm Chantal

Having formed off the Georgia coast, Tropical Storm Chantal is expected to make landfall in South Carolina by tomorrow morning.  Since it is not a hurricane, it may not be taken as seriously as it should.

Heavy rain is expected to fall across coastal and near-inland areas of the Carolinas and coastal flooding from wind-driven waves and storm surge is forecast for North Carolina.  The risk of inland flooding may also extend into the Mid-Atlantic Region.

As we have seen with this weekend's tragic flooding in central Texas, it is increasingly difficult to predict regional rainfall.  Established models do not apply as our climate warms and those who minimize the potential effects of Chantal do so at their own risk. 

Trump abolishes Marine Sanctuary

With the stroke of his quill pen, King Trump has opened the Pacific Islands Heritage Marine National Monument to commercial fishing.  As reported in the New York Times, the 490,000 square-mile preserve, which was established by the George W. Bush Administration and expanded by the Obama Administration, contains hundreds of atolls and seamounts that harbor rich coral beds, vital to the health of the regional marine ecosystem.  The Preserve lies 750 miles west of Hawaii.

Of course, Trump is focused solely on the economic benefits of mass-market fishing, not on the health of the marine environment.  As long as he remains in power, we can expect many more of these sudden and dramatic attacks on conservation programs and protected natural habitat.

Having destroyed our economy, our alliances and our civil rights, he is moving on to Nature herself.  That is a battle he cannot win.  

In Protest

Among his many first-week declarations, King Trump has renamed the Gulf of Mexico the Gulf of America and Denali (the highest peak in Alaska and in North America) back to Mt. McKinley; this previous name honored President McKinley, from Ohio, who was assassinated and never visited the peak.

More than a petty use of his reclaimed power, these declarations demonstrate Trump's disdain for all non-white cultures as well as his ignorance of history.  Will New Mexico be next on his list?

In protest, I will continue to utilize the appropriate names for geographic features and regions, not the sanitized versions favored by our self-proclaimed King. 

Trees Native to Hawaii

Watching a PGA tournament from Oahu this afternoon, I began to wonder how many trees are native to that remote Pacific archipelago.  I thus consulted Common Forest Trees of Hawaii by Elbert L. Little and Roger G. Skolmen of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (available online).

Before reading the article, I assumed that few of Hawaii's trees are native to the islands due to their remote location and relatively young age (10 million years or so); I was wrong.  In fact, Hawaii leads all U.S. States in its number of native tree species.  At least 300 grace the islands, thought to have evolved from 78 unique species that arrived over the years; genetic testing suggests that 45 arrived from the West or Southwest (Indo-Pacific region), 16 from the South Pacific and 7 from North America.

The seeds are thought to have arrived on floating vegetation, via seabird droppings or on the winds of powerful hurricanes.  Of course, the lush vegetation of present-day Hawaii also includes a large number of trees introduced by early Polynesian settlers, by European explorers and by modern-day humans.  Of note, 18 of the many palm species found today are native to Hawaii.

Christmas on the Beach

One does not get a "White Christmas" here in South Florida (except for the white sand) but it sometimes feels like a Midwestern winter.  Cloudy, cool, breezy conditions greeted us on the beach this morning and sunbathers remained huddled in their cozy condos.

We did encounter a few other humans who braved the chilly conditions and came across small flocks of laughing gulls, temporarily grounded by the light fog and drizzle.  A lone dolphin swam past in the calm Gulf waters where a few terns and brown pelicans dove for their morning meal.

But we can't complain.  It's still a lovely spot to visit and, if the forecast holds, warm sunshine will return by tomorrow.  Happy Holidays to all!